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Hazard characterization of Alternaria toxins to identify data gaps and improve risk assessment for human health
Fungi of the genus Alternaria are ubiquitous plant pathogens and saprophytes which are able to grow under varying temperature and moisture conditions as well as on a large range of substrates. A spectrum of structurally diverse secondary metabolites with toxic potential has been identified, but occu...
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Published in: | Archives of toxicology 2024-02, Vol.98 (2), p.425-469 |
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Main Authors: | , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , |
Format: | Article |
Language: | English |
Subjects: | |
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Summary: | Fungi of the genus
Alternaria
are ubiquitous plant pathogens and saprophytes which are able to grow under varying temperature and moisture conditions as well as on a large range of substrates. A spectrum of structurally diverse secondary metabolites with toxic potential has been identified, but occurrence and relative proportion of the different metabolites in complex mixtures depend on strain, substrate, and growth conditions. This review compiles the available knowledge on hazard identification and characterization of
Alternaria
toxins. Alternariol (AOH), its monomethylether AME and the perylene quinones altertoxin I (ATX-I), ATX-II, ATX-III, alterperylenol (ALP), and stemphyltoxin III (STTX-III) showed in vitro genotoxic and mutagenic properties. Of all identified
Alternaria
toxins, the epoxide-bearing analogs ATX-II, ATX-III, and STTX-III show the highest cytotoxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic potential in vitro
.
Under hormone-sensitive conditions, AOH and AME act as moderate xenoestrogens, but in silico modeling predicts further
Alternaria
toxins as potential estrogenic factors. Recent studies indicate also an immunosuppressive role of AOH and ATX-II; however, no data are available for the majority of
Alternaria
toxins. Overall, hazard characterization of
Alternaria
toxins focused, so far, primarily on the commercially available dibenzo-α-pyrones AOH and AME and tenuazonic acid (TeA). Limited data sets are available for altersetin (ALS), altenuene (ALT), and tentoxin (TEN). The occurrence and toxicological relevance of perylene quinone-based
Alternaria
toxins still remain to be fully elucidated. We identified data gaps on hazard identification and characterization crucial to improve risk assessment of
Alternaria
mycotoxins for consumers and occupationally exposed workers. |
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ISSN: | 0340-5761 1432-0738 1432-0738 |
DOI: | 10.1007/s00204-023-03636-8 |